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Active-pixel sensor

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An active-pixel sensor (APS) is an image sensor, which was invented by Peter J.W. Noble in 1968, where each pixel sensor unit cell has a <a href="Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a> (typically a <a href="Pinned_photodiode" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinned photodiode">pinned photodiode</a>) and one or more active <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> In a <a href="Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) active-pixel sensor, <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistors</a> (MOSFETs) are used as <a href="Amplifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplifiers">amplifiers</a>. There are different types of APS, including the early NMOS APS and the now much more common <a href="Complementary_MOS" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary MOS">complementary MOS</a> (CMOS) APS, also known as the CMOS sensor. CMOS sensors are used in <a href="Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital camera</a> technologies such as <a href="Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">cell phone cameras</a>, <a href="Web_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Web camera">web cameras</a>, most modern digital pocket cameras, most <a href="Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">digital single-lens reflex cameras</a> (DSLRs), <a href="Mirrorless_interchangeable-lens_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera">mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras</a> (MILCs), and lensless imaging for, e.g., blood cells.

CMOS sensors emerged as an alternative to <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) image sensors and eventually outsold them by the mid-2000s.

The term active pixel sensor is also used to refer to the individual pixel sensor itself, as opposed to the image sensor. In this case, the image sensor is sometimes called an active pixel sensor imager,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> or active-pixel image sensor.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Image_sensor#History" title="Image sensor">Image sensor § History</a></div>

While researching <a href="Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) technology, <a href="Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Willard Boyle</a> and <a href="George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">George E. Smith</a> realized that an electric charge could be stored on a tiny <a href="MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitor</a>, which became the basic building block of the <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD), which they invented in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> An issue with CCD technology was its need for nearly perfect charge transfer in read out, which, "makes their radiation [tolerance?] 'soft', difficult to use under low light conditions, difficult to manufacture in large array sizes, difficult to integrate with <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">on-chip</a> <a href="Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, difficult to use at low temperatures, difficult to use at <a href="High_frame_rate" title="High frame rate">high frame rates</a>, and difficult to manufacture in non-<a href="Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> materials that extend wavelength response."<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a>

At <a href="RCA_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="RCA Laboratories">RCA Laboratories</a>, a research team including <a href="Paul_K._Weimer" title="Paul K. Weimer">Paul K. Weimer</a>, W.S. Pike and G. Sadasiv in 1969 proposed a <a href="Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> image sensor with scanning circuits using <a href="Thin-film_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film transistors">thin-film transistors</a> (TFTs), with <a href="Photoconductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoconductive">photoconductive</a> <a href="Film" title="Film">film</a> used for the <a href="Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ohta-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> A low-resolution "mostly digital" <a href="NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">N-channel MOSFET</a> (NMOS) imager with intra-pixel amplification, for an <a href="Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> application, was demonstrated by <a href="Richard_F._Lyon" title="Richard F. Lyon">Richard F. Lyon</a> in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Another type of image sensor technology that is related to the APS is the hybrid infrared focal plane array (IRFPA),<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a> designed to operate at <a href="Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> temperatures in the <a href="Infrared_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared spectrum">infrared spectrum</a>. The devices are two chips that are put together like a sandwich: one chip contains detector elements made in <a href="InGaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAs">InGaAs</a> or <a href="HgCdTe" class="mw-redirect" title="HgCdTe">HgCdTe</a>, and the other chip is typically made of silicon and is used to read out the photodetectors. The exact date of origin of these devices is classified, but they were in use by the mid-1980s.

A key element of the modern CMOS sensor is the <a href="Pinned_photodiode" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinned photodiode">pinned photodiode</a> (PPD).<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> It was invented by <a href="Nobukazu_Teranishi" title="Nobukazu Teranishi">Nobukazu Teranishi</a>, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at <a href="NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> in 1980,<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and then publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-<a href="Blooming_(CCD)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blooming (CCD)">blooming</a> structure.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The pinned photodiode is a <a href="Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a> structure with low <a href="Shutter_lag" title="Shutter lag">lag</a>, low <a href="Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a>, high <a href="Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> and low <a href="Dark_current_(physics)" title="Dark current (physics)">dark current</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at <a href="Kodak" title="Kodak">Kodak</a> in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in <a href="Consumer_electronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer electronic">consumer electronic</a> <a href="Video_cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="Video cameras">video cameras</a> and then <a href="Digital_still_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital still camera">digital still cameras</a>. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Passive-pixel_sensor">Passive-pixel sensor</h3></div>

The precursor to the APS was the passive-pixel sensor (PPS), a type of <a href="Photodiode_array" class="mw-redirect" title="Photodiode array">photodiode array</a> (PDA).<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read out without <a href="Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a>, with each pixel consisting of a <a href="Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiode</a> and a <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> switch.<a href="#cite_note-Kozlowski-12">[12]</a> In a photodiode array, pixels contain a <a href="P-n_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="P-n junction">p-n junction</a>, integrated <a href="Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a>, and MOSFETs as selection <a href="Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a>. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968, predating the CCD.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a> This was the basis for the PPS,<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> which had image sensor elements with in-pixel selection transistors, proposed by Peter J.W. Noble in 1968,<a href="#cite_note-Noble-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ohta-7">[7]</a> and by Savvas G. Chamberlain in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

Passive-pixel sensors were being investigated as a <a href="Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> alternative to <a href="Camera_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Camera tube">vacuum-tube imaging devices</a>. The MOS passive-pixel sensor used just a simple switch in the pixel to read out the photodiode integrated charge.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Pixels were arrayed in a two-dimensional structure, with an access enable wire shared by pixels in the same row, and output wire shared by column. At the end of each column was a transistor. Passive-pixel sensors suffered from many limitations, such as high <a href="Image_noise" title="Image noise">noise</a>, slow readout, and lack of <a href="Scalability" title="Scalability">scalability</a>. Early (1960s–1970s) photodiode arrays with selection transistors within each pixel, along with on-chip <a href="Multiplexer" title="Multiplexer">multiplexer</a> circuits, were impractically large. The <a href="Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a> of photodiode arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout bus capacitance resulted in increased read-noise level. <a href="Correlated_double_sampling" title="Correlated double sampling">Correlated double sampling</a> (CDS) could also not be used with a photodiode array without external <a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>. It was not possible to <a href="Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricate</a> active-pixel sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited <a href="Microlithography" title="Microlithography">microlithography</a> technology at the time.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a> Because the MOS process was so variable and MOS transistors had characteristics that changed over time (<a href="Threshold_voltage" title="Threshold voltage">Vth</a> instability), the CCD's charge-domain operation was more manufacturable and higher performance than MOS passive-pixel sensors.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active-pixel_sensor">Active-pixel sensor</h3></div>

The active-pixel sensor consists of active pixels, each containing one or more <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> <a href="Amplifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplifiers">amplifiers</a> which convert the photo-generated charge to a voltage, amplify the signal voltage, and reduce noise.<a href="#cite_note-Kozlowski-12">[12]</a> The concept of an active-pixel device was proposed by Peter Noble in 1968. He created sensor arrays with active MOS readout amplifiers per pixel, in essentially the modern three-transistor configuration: the buried photodiode-structure, selection transistor and MOS amplifier.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2013-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Noble-13">[13]</a>

The <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> active-pixel concept was implemented as the charge modulation device (CMD) by <a href="Olympus_Corporation" title="Olympus Corporation">Olympus</a> in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOSFET <a href="Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">semiconductor device fabrication</a>, with <a href="MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a> reaching smaller <a href="List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">micron and then sub-micron</a> levels during the 1980s to early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The first MOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985. The term active pixel sensor (APS) was coined by Nakamura while working on the CMD active-pixel sensor at Olympus.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The CMD imager had a vertical APS structure, which increases fill-factor (or reduces pixel size) by storing the signal charge under an output <a href="NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> transistor. Other Japanese <a href="Semiconductor_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor company">semiconductor companies</a> soon followed with their own active pixel sensors during the late 1980s to early 1990s. Between 1988 and 1991, <a href="Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> developed the "<a href="Double-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-gate">double-gate</a> <a href="Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating</a> surface transistor" sensor, which had a lateral APS structure, with each pixel containing a buried-channel MOS photogate and a <a href="PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a> output amplifier. Between 1989 and 1992, <a href="Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> developed the base-stored image sensor (BASIS), which used a vertical APS structure similar to the Olympus sensor, but with <a href="Bipolar_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar transistors">bipolar transistors</a> rather than MOSFETs.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a>

In the early 1990s, American companies began developing practical MOS active pixel sensors. In 1991, <a href="Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> developed the bulk CMD (BCMD) sensor, which was fabricated at the company's Japanese branch and had a vertical APS structure similar to the Olympus CMD sensor, but was more complex and used PMOS rather than NMOS transistors.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CMOS_sensor">CMOS sensor</h3></div>

By the late 1980s to early 1990s, the <a href="CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> process was well-established as a well-controlled stable <a href="Semiconductor_manufacturing_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor manufacturing process">semiconductor manufacturing process</a> and was the baseline process for almost all logic and <a href="Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>. There was a resurgence in the use of passive-pixel sensors for low-end imaging applications,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> while active-pixel sensors began being used for low-resolution high-function applications such as retina simulation<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> and high-energy particle detectors. However, CCDs continued to have much lower temporal noise and fixed-pattern noise and were the dominant technology for consumer applications such as <a href="Camcorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Camcorders">camcorders</a> as well as for broadcast <a href="Cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="Cameras">cameras</a>, where they were displacing <a href="Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">video camera tubes</a>.

In 1993, the CMOS active-pixel sensor, a type of <a href="Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensor</a>, was developed at <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> It came after active-pixel sensors that were developed using PMOS technology in Japan by Toshiba. It had a lateral APS structure similar to the Toshiba sensor, but was fabricated with CMOS rather than PMOS transistors.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a> It was the first CMOS sensor with <a href="Intrapixel_and_Interpixel_processing" title="Intrapixel and Interpixel processing">intra-pixel</a> charge transfer.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a>

In 1999, Hyundai Electronics announced the commercial production of a 800x600 color CMOS image sensor based on 4T pixel with a high performance pinned photodiode with integrated ADCs and fabricated in a baseline 0.5 um DRAM process.

Photobit's CMOS sensors found their way into webcams manufactured by <a href="Logitech" title="Logitech">Logitech</a> and <a href="Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, before Photobit was purchased by <a href="Micron_Technology" title="Micron Technology">Micron Technology</a> in 2001. The early CMOS sensor market was initially led by American manufacturers such as Micron, and Omnivision, allowing the United States to briefly recapture a portion of the overall image sensor market from Japan, before the CMOS sensor market eventually came to be dominated by Japan, South Korea and China.<a href="#cite_note-spinoff-22">[22]</a> The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further advanced and refined by R. M. Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I. Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors achieve imaging performance on par with CCD sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a>

By 2000, CMOS sensors were used in a variety of applications, including low-cost cameras, <a href="PC_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="PC camera">PC cameras</a>, <a href="Fax" title="Fax">fax</a>, <a href="Multimedia" title="Multimedia">multimedia</a>, <a href="Security" title="Security">security</a>, <a href="Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a>, and <a href="Videophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophones">videophones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

The video industry switched to CMOS cameras with the advent of <a href="High-definition_video" title="High-definition video">high-definition video</a> (HD video), as the large number of pixels would require significantly higher power consumption with CCD sensors, which would overheat and drain batteries.<a href="#cite_note-spinoff-22">[22]</a> <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> in 2007 commercialized CMOS sensors with an original column A/D conversion circuit, for fast, low-noise performance, followed in 2009 by the CMOS <a href="Back-illuminated_sensor" title="Back-illuminated sensor">back-illuminated sensor</a> (BI sensor), with twice the sensitivity of conventional image sensors.<a href="#cite_note-Sony-24">[24]</a>

CMOS sensors went on to have a significant cultural impact, leading to the mass proliferation of <a href="Digital_cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital cameras">digital cameras</a> and <a href="Camera_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Camera phones">camera phones</a>, which bolstered the rise of <a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> and <a href="Selfie" title="Selfie">selfie</a> culture, and impacted social and political movements around the world.<a href="#cite_note-spinoff-22">[22]</a> By 2007, sales of CMOS active-pixel sensors had surpassed CCD sensors, with CMOS sensors accounting for 54% of the global image sensor market at the time. By 2012, CMOS sensors increased their share to 74% of the market. As of 2017, CMOS sensors account for 89% of global image sensor sales.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In recent years, the CMOS sensor technology has spread to medium-format photography with <a href="Phase_One_(company)" title="Phase One (company)">Phase One</a> being the first to launch a medium format digital back with a Sony-built CMOS sensor.

In 2012, Sony introduced the <a href="Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">stacked CMOS</a> BI sensor.<a href="#cite_note-Sony-24">[24]</a> There have been several research activities ongoing in the field of image sensors. One of them is the quanta image sensor (QIS), which might be a paradigm shift in the way we collect images in a camera. In the QIS, the goal is to count every photon that strikes the image sensor, and to provide resolution of less than 1 million to 1 billion or more specialized photoelements (called jots) per sensor, and to read out jot bit planes hundreds or thousands of times per second resulting in terabits/sec of data. The QIS idea is in its infancy and may never become reality due to the non necessary complexity that is needed to capture an image <a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

Boyd Fowler of <a href="OmniVision_Technologies" title="OmniVision Technologies">OmniVision</a> is known for his work in CMOS image sensor development. His contributions include the first digital-pixel CMOS image sensor in 1994; the first scientific linear CMOS image sensor with single-electron RMS read noise in 2003; the first multi-megapixel scientific area CMOS image sensor with simultaneous <a href="High-dynamic-range_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="High-dynamic-range imaging">high dynamic range</a> (86 dB), fast readout (100 frames/second) and ultra-low read noise (1.2e- RMS) (sCMOS) in 2010. He also patented the first CMOS image sensor for inter-oral dental X-rays with clipped corners for better patient comfort.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

By the late 2010s CMOS sensors had largely if not completely replaced CCD sensors, as CMOS sensors can not only be made in existing semiconductor production lines, reducing costs, but they also consume less power, just to name a few advantages. (<a href="#Comparison_to_CCDs">see below</a>)

HV-CMOS devices are a specialty case of ordinary CMOS sensors used in high-voltage applications (for detection of <a href="Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high energy particles</a>) like CERN <a href="Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> where a high-breakdown voltage up to ~30-120V is necessary.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> Such devices are not used for high-voltage switching though.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> HV-CMOS are typically implemented by ~10 μm deep n-doped depletion zone (n-well) of a transistor on a p-type <a href="Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a> substrate.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_to_CCDs">Comparison to CCDs</h2></div>

APS pixels solve the speed and scalability issues of the passive-pixel sensor. They generally consume less power than CCDs, have less image lag, and require less specialized manufacturing facilities. Unlike CCDs, APS sensors can combine the image sensor function and image processing functions within the same <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a>. APS sensors have found markets in many consumer applications, especially <a href="Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">camera phones</a>. They have also been used in other fields including digital <a href="Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>, military ultra high speed image acquisition, <a href="Security_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Security camera">security cameras</a>, and <a href="Mouse_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse (computer)">optical mice</a>. Manufacturers include <a href="Aptina" title="Aptina">Aptina Imaging</a> (independent spinout from <a href="Micron_Technology" title="Micron Technology">Micron Technology</a>, who purchased Photobit in 2001), <a href="Canon_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon (company)">Canon</a>, <a href="Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>, <a href="STMicroelectronics" title="STMicroelectronics">STMicroelectronics</a>, <a href="Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a>, <a href="OmniVision_Technologies" title="OmniVision Technologies">OmniVision Technologies</a>, <a href="Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a>, and <a href="Foveon" title="Foveon">Foveon</a>, among others. CMOS-type APS sensors are typically suited to applications in which packaging, power management, and on-chip processing are important. CMOS type sensors are widely used, from high-end digital photography down to mobile-phone cameras.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages_of_CMOS_compared_with_CCD">Advantages of CMOS compared with CCD</h3></div>

A primary advantage of a CMOS sensor is that it is typically less expensive to produce than a CCD sensor, as the image capturing and image sensing elements can be combined onto the same IC, with simpler construction required.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

A CMOS sensor also typically has better control of blooming (that is, of bleeding of photo-charge from an over-exposed pixel into other nearby pixels).

In <a href="Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">three-sensor camera systems</a> that use separate sensors to resolve the red, green, and blue components of the image in conjunction with beam splitter prisms, the three CMOS sensors can be identical, whereas most splitter prisms require that one of the CCD sensors has to be a mirror image of the other two to read out the image in a compatible order. Unlike CCD sensors, CMOS sensors have the ability to reverse the addressing of the sensor elements. CMOS Sensors with a <a href="Film_speed" title="Film speed">film speed</a> of ISO 4 million exist.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages_of_CMOS_compared_with_CCD">Disadvantages of CMOS compared with CCD</h3></div>

Since a CMOS sensor typically captures a row at a time within approximately 1/60 or 1/50 of a second (depending on refresh rate) it may result in a <a href="Rolling_shutter_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling shutter effect">rolling shutter effect</a>, where the image is skewed (tilted to the left or right, depending on the direction of camera or subject movement). For example, when tracking a car moving at high speed, the car will not be distorted but the background will appear to be tilted. A frame-transfer CCD sensor or "global shutter" CMOS sensor does not have this problem; instead it captures the entire image at once into a frame store.

A long-standing advantage of CCD sensors has been their capability for capturing images with lower <a href="Image_noise" title="Image noise">noise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> With improvements in CMOS technology, this advantage has closed as of 2020, with modern CMOS sensors available capable of outperforming CCD sensors.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

The active circuitry in CMOS pixels takes some area on the surface which is not light-sensitive, reducing the photon-detection efficiency of the device (<a href="Microlens" title="Microlens">microlenses</a> and <a href="Back-illuminated_sensor" title="Back-illuminated sensor">back-illuminated sensors</a> can mitigate this problem). But the frame-transfer CCD also has about half the non-sensitive area for the frame store nodes, so the relative advantages depend on which types of sensors are being compared.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pixel">Pixel</h3></div>

The standard <a href="CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> APS pixel consists of a <a href="Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a> (<a href="Pinned_photodiode" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinned photodiode">pinned photodiode</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-2">[2]</a> a <a href="Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating</a> diffusion, and the so-called 4T cell consisting of four <a href="CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> (complementary <a href="Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a>) <a href="Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a>, including a transfer <a href="Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">gate</a>, reset gate, selection gate and source-follower readout transistor.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The pinned photodiode was originally used in interline transfer CCDs due to its low dark current and good blue response, and when coupled with the transfer gate, allows complete charge transfer from the pinned photodiode to the floating diffusion (which is further connected to the gate of the read-out transistor) eliminating lag. The use of intrapixel charge transfer can offer lower noise by enabling the use of <a href="Correlated_double_sampling" title="Correlated double sampling">correlated double sampling</a> (CDS). The Noble 3T pixel is still sometimes used since the fabrication requirements are less complex. The 3T pixel comprises the same elements as the 4T pixel except the transfer gate and the photodiode. The reset transistor, Mrst, acts as a switch to reset the floating diffusion to VRST, which in this case is represented as the gate of the Msf transistor. When the reset transistor is turned on, the photodiode is effectively connected to the power supply, VRST, clearing all integrated charge. Since the reset transistor is <a href="N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type</a>, the pixel operates in soft reset. The read-out transistor, Msf, acts as a buffer (specifically, a <a href="Source_follower" class="mw-redirect" title="Source follower">source follower</a>), an amplifier which allows the pixel voltage to be observed without removing the accumulated charge. Its power supply, VDD, is typically tied to the power supply of the reset transistor VRST. The select transistor, Msel, allows a single row of the pixel array to be read by the read-out electronics. Other innovations of the pixels such as 5T and 6T pixels also exist. By adding extra transistors, functions such as global shutter, as opposed to the more common <a href="Rolling_shutter" title="Rolling shutter">rolling shutter</a>, are possible. In order to increase the pixel densities, shared-row, four-ways and eight-ways shared read out, and other architectures can be employed. A variant of the 3T active pixel is the <a href="Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a> invented by <a href="Richard_B._Merrill" title="Richard B. Merrill">Dick Merrill</a>. In this device, three photodiodes are stacked on top of each other using <a href="Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar fabrication techniques</a>, each photodiode having its own 3T circuit. Each successive layer acts as a filter for the layer below it shifting the spectrum of absorbed light in successive layers. By deconvolving the response of each layered detector, red, green, and blue signals can be reconstructed.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Array">Array</h3></div>

A typical two-dimensional array of pixels is organized into rows and columns. Pixels in a given row share reset lines, so that a whole row is reset at a time. The row select lines of each pixel in a row are tied together as well. The outputs of each pixel in any given column are tied together. Since only one row is selected at a given time, no competition for the output line occurs. Further amplifier circuitry is typically on a column basis.

The size of the pixel sensor is often given in height and width, but also in the <a href="Optical_format" title="Optical format">optical format</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lateral_and_vertical_structures">Lateral and vertical structures</h3></div>

There are two types of active-pixel sensor (APS) structures, the lateral APS and vertical APS.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a> <a href="Eric_Fossum" title="Eric Fossum">Eric Fossum</a> defines the lateral APS as follows:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">A lateral APS structure is defined as one that has part of the pixel area used for photodetection and signal storage, and the other part is used for the active transistor(s). The advantage of this approach, compared to a vertically integrated APS, is that the fabrication process is simpler, and is highly compatible with state-of-the-art CMOS and CCD device processes.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a></blockquote>

Fossum defines the vertical APS as follows:

<blockquote class="templatequote">A vertical APS structure increases fill-factor (or reduces pixel size) by storing the signal charge under the output transistor.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-1">[1]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thin-film_transistors">Thin-film transistors</h3></div>

For applications such as large-area digital <a href="X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> imaging, <a href="Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">thin-film transistors</a> (TFTs) can also be used in APS architecture. However, because of the larger size and lower transconductance gain of TFTs compared with CMOS transistors, it is necessary to have fewer on-pixel TFTs to maintain image resolution and quality at an acceptable level. A two-transistor APS/PPS architecture has been shown to be promising for APS using <a href="Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> TFTs. In the two-transistor APS architecture on the right, TAMP is used as a switched-amplifier integrating functions of both Msf and Msel in the three-transistor APS. This results in reduced transistor counts per pixel, as well as increased pixel transconductance gain.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Here, Cpix is the pixel storage capacitance, and it is also used to capacitively couple the addressing pulse of the "Read" to the gate of TAMP for ON-OFF switching. Such pixel readout circuits work best with low capacitance photoconductor detectors such as amorphous <a href="Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_variants">Design variants</h2></div>

Many different pixel designs have been proposed and fabricated. The standard pixel uses the fewest wires and the fewest, most tightly packed transistors possible for an active pixel. It is important that the active circuitry in a pixel take up as little space as possible to allow more room for the photodetector. High transistor count hurts fill factor, that is, the percentage of the pixel area that is sensitive to light. Pixel size can be traded for desirable qualities such as noise reduction or reduced image lag. Noise is a measure of the accuracy with which the incident light can be measured. Lag occurs when traces of a previous frame remain in future frames, i.e. the pixel is not fully reset. The voltage noise variance in a soft-reset (gate-voltage regulated) pixel is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/2C}">

</mrow>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/2C}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./bbda648fde6601e084418a8ddf88119c5b3c2e81.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.008ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/2C}" loading="lazy">, but image lag and fixed pattern noise may be problematic. In rms electrons, the noise is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{e}={\frac {\sqrt {kTC/2}}{q}}}">

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</math><img src="./a42416a550360934f7b079b463ab131e990c0629.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:16.062ex; height:6.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{e}={\frac {\sqrt {kTC/2}}{q}}}" loading="lazy">.

<a href="Hard_reset" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard reset">Hard reset</a> The pixel via hard reset results in a <a href="Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise">Johnson–Nyquist noise</a> on the photodiode of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/C}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/C}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./48939997c523bbf36691b85940e15d79f725fa4b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.846ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{n}^{2}=kT/C}" loading="lazy"> or <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{e}={\frac {\sqrt {kTC}}{q}}}">

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</math><img src="./8cee7fd99a0032ff26f1669f5515d6c112e30587.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.349ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{e}={\frac {\sqrt {kTC}}{q}}}" loading="lazy">, but prevents image lag, sometimes a desirable tradeoff. One way to use hard reset is replace Mrst with a p-type transistor and invert the polarity of the RST signal. The presence of the p-type device reduces fill factor, as extra space is required between p- and n-devices; it also removes the possibility of using the reset transistor as an overflow anti-blooming drain, which is a commonly exploited benefit of the n-type reset FET. Another way to achieve hard reset, with the n-type FET, is to lower the voltage of VRST relative to the on-voltage of RST. This reduction may reduce headroom, or full-well charge capacity, but does not affect fill factor, unless VDD is then routed on a separate wire with its original voltage.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combinations_of_hard_and_soft_reset">Combinations of hard and soft reset</h3></div>

Techniques such as flushed reset, pseudo-flash reset, and hard-to-soft reset combine soft and hard reset. The details of these methods differ, but the basic idea is the same. First, a hard reset is done, eliminating image lag. Next, a soft reset is done, causing a low noise reset without adding any lag.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Pseudo-flash reset requires separating VRST from VDD, while the other two techniques add more complicated column circuitry. Specifically, pseudo-flash reset and hard-to-soft reset both add transistors between the pixel power supplies and the actual VDD. The result is lower headroom, without affecting fill factor.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_reset">Active reset</h3></div>

A more radical pixel design is the active-reset pixel. Active reset can result in much lower noise levels. The tradeoff is a complicated reset scheme, as well as either a much larger pixel or extra column-level circuitry.

<ul><li><a href="Angle-sensitive_pixel" title="Angle-sensitive pixel">Angle-sensitive pixel</a></li>

<li><a href="Back-illuminated_sensor" title="Back-illuminated sensor">Back-illuminated sensor</a></li>

<li><a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">Charge-coupled device</a></li>

<li><a href="Planar_Fourier_capture_array" title="Planar Fourier capture array">Planar Fourier capture array</a></li>

<li><a href="Oversampled_binary_image_sensor" title="Oversampled binary image sensor">Oversampled binary image sensor</a></li>

<li>Category:Digital cameras with CMOS image sensor</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLyon1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Richard_F._Lyon" title="Richard F. Lyon">Lyon, Richard F.</a> (August 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/xerox/parc/techReports/VLSI-81-1_The_Optical_Mouse.pdf">"The Optical Mouse, and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors"</a> (PDF). In H. T. Kung; R. Sproull; G. Steele (eds.). CMU Conference on VLSI Structures and Computations. Pittsburgh: Computer Science Press. pp. 1–19. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-68402-9_1">10.1007/978-3-642-68402-9_1</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-68404-3</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60722329">60722329</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US4484210">U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag</a>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Vampola1993" class="citation book cs1">John L. Vampola (January 1993). "Readout electronics for infrared sensors". In David L. Shumaker (ed.). The Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Handbook, Volume 3 – Electro-Optical Components. The International Society for Optical Engineering. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8194-1072-6</bdi>. <a href="DTIC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="DTIC (identifier)">DTIC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/tr/ADA364023">ADA364023</a>.</cite> — one of the first books on CMOS imager array design</li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHewittVampolaBlackNielsen1994" class="citation book cs1">Hewitt, Mary J.; Vampola, John L.; Black, Stephen H.; Nielsen, Carolyn J. (23 June 1994). "Infrared readout electronics: A historical perspective". In Fossum, Eric R. (ed.). Infrared Readout Electronics II. Vol. 2226. pp. 108–119. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994SPIE.2226..108H">1994SPIE.2226..108H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.178474">10.1117/12.178474</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109585056">109585056</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMark_D._NelsonJerris_F._JohnsonTerrence_S._Lomheim1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mark D. Nelson; Jerris F. Johnson; Terrence S. Lomheim (November 1991). "General noise processes in hybrid infrared focal plane arrays". Optical Engineering. 30 (11). The International Society for Optical Engineering: 1682–1700. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991OptEn..30.1682N">1991OptEn..30.1682N</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.55996">10.1117/12.55996</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStefano_MeroliLeonello_ServoliDaniele_Passeri2011" class="citation journal cs1">Stefano Meroli; Leonello Servoli; Daniele Passeri (June 2011). "Use of a standard CMOS imager as position detector for charged particles". Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements. 215 (1). Elsevier: 228–231. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NuPhS.215..228S">2011NuPhS.215..228S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysbps.2011.04.016">10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2011.04.016</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CMOS_Tes" class="citation web cs1">Martin Vasey (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jovasolutions.com/isl-white-paper/82-isl-3200-white-paper">"CMOS Image Sensor Testing: An Integrated Approach"</a>. Jova Solutions. San Francisco, CA.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:CMOS_sensors" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:CMOS sensors">CMOS sensors</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161012163818/https://www.ikalogic.com/image-processing-as-a-sensor/">CMOS camera as a sensor</a> Tutorial showing how low cost CMOS camera can replace sensors in robotics applications</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meroli.web.cern.ch/lecture_cmos_vs_ccd_pixel_sensor.html">CMOS APS vs CCD</a> CMOS Active Pixel Sensor Vs CCD. Performance comparison</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040354/http://www.pjwn.co.uk/">Image sensor inventor Peter J. W. Noble's web page</a> with papers and video of 2015 presentation</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://optics.org/article/34411/CMOS">Image showing FSI and BSI sensor topology</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Photography245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a>

<ul><li><a href="Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li>

<li><a href="Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li>

<li><a href="Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li>

<li><a href="Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li>

<li><a href="Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li>

<li><a href="Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li>

<li><a href="Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a>

<ul><li><a href="Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li>

<li><a href="Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li>

<li><a href="Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a>

<ul><li><a href="Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li>

<li><a href="Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li>

<li><a href="Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li>

<li><a href="Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li>

<li><a href="Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li>

<li><a href="Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li>

<li><a href="Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li>

<li><a href="Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li>

<li><a href="Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li>

<li><a href="Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li>

<li><a href="Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a>

<li><a href="Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li>

<li><a href="Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li>

<li><a href="Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li>

<li><a href="Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li>

<li><a href="Black-and-white" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li>

<li><a href="Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li>

<li><a href="Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li>

<li><a href="Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li>

<li><a href="Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li>

<li><a href="F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a>

<ul><li><a href="Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li>

<li><a href="Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li>

<li><a href="Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li>

<li><a href="Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li>

<li><a href="Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li>

<li><a href="Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li>

<li><a href="Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li>

<li><a href="Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li>

<li><a href="Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li>

<li><a href="Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li>

<li><a href="Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li>

<li><a href="Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li>

<li><a href="Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li>

<li><a href="Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li>

<li><a href="High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li>

<li><a href="Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li>

<li><a href="Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li>

<li><a href="Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li>

<li><a href="Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li>

<li><a href="Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li>

<li><a href="Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li>

<li><a href="Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li>

<li><a href="Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li>

<li><a href="Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li>

<li><a href="Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li>

<li><a href="Crittercam" title="Crittercam">Crittercam</a> (<a href="Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li>

<li><a href="Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li>

<li><a href="Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li>

<li><a href="High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li>

<li><a href="Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li>

<li><a href="Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li>

<li><a href="Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Lomography" title="Lomography">Lomography</a></li>

<li><a href="Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li>

<li><a href="Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li>

<li><a href="Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li>

<li><a href="Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li>

<li><a href="Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li>

<li><a href="Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li>

<li><a href="Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li>

<li><a href="Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li>

<li><a href="Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li>

<li><a href="Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li>

<li><a href="Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li>

<li><a href="Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li>

<li><a href="Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li>

<li><a href="Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a>

<li><a href="Sprocket_hole_photography" title="Sprocket hole photography">Sprocket hole</a></li>

<li><a href="Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a>

<ul><li><a href="Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li>

<li><a href="Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li>

<li><a href="Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li>

<li><a href="Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li>

<li><a href="Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_photography" class="mw-redirect" title="Film photography">Film photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li>

<li><a href="Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li>

<li><a href="Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li>

<li><a href="Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li>

<li><a href="Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li>

<li><a href="Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li>

<li><a href="Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li>

<li><a href="Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li>

<li><a href="Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li>

<li><a href="Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li>

<li><a href="CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li>

<li><a href="RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li>

<li><a href="C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li>

<li><a href="Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li>

<li><a href="E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li>

<li><a href="Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li>

<li><a href="Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li>

<li><a href="K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li>

<li><a href="Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li>

<li><a href="Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a>

<li><a href="Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li>

<li><a href="Say_cheese" title="Say cheese">Say cheese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-04-20" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Active-pixel_sensor&oldid=1286597064">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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